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Literary Devices

May 1, 2024
The Novelry
May 1, 2024

Best literary devices and their uses: a comprehensive guide

Literary devices are some fine and dandy tools that can enrich and enliven your writing.

Your priority when writing fiction should be storytelling using any tools or treatments, whatever they may be, in most compelling way you can to advance the story, story, story. Create change in every chapter, ensure the stakes are as high as possible, and make sure you keep your eye on the special sauce that makes a story a page-turner—advancing the matter of what the reader is reading to find out!

Use literary devices to season the story, but don’t put fancy footwork ahead of what happens next, which must always drive the narrative of the story! Don’t play literary device bingo! At The Novelry, we always say tools not rules.

Whether you’re a writer looking to build your storytelling style or a reader wanting to dive deeper into the books you love, this comprehensive guide will walk you through the best and most important literary devices and how authors use them to go from good to great.

If you thought this was a dry subject, think again! A few incendiary literary devices can save you a deal of long-winded exposition, and we are going to share with you some brilliant examples from the works of Sally Rooney, David Sedaris, Toni Morrison and many more.

Plus, we can offer you a bumper list of most literary devices known in the English language at the foot of this article to bookmark and reference. Knock yourself out!

Remember:

  • Literary devices are tools for writers to keep readers glued to the page, not to detract from the main principle of storytelling, which is what happens next.

Understanding literary devices

Books using various literary devices including metaphors and similes.
The authors of the all-time classics use literary devices to go from good to great

Writers use literary devices as instruments to deepen meaning, enliven a passage, and shamelessly grab a reader’s attention, too. To immerse the reader in a poetic moment of feeling. They range from metaphors and similes to alliterations and allegories, from onomatopoeia to zeugma! Read on, dear reader, read on! (Zeugma is a cracker!)

These devices serve many purposes: they express underlying significance, underscore themes, and enhance the reading flow by bringing images to mind that are short and sweet in the way they are able to give a new spin to a universally accepted truth. For example, a strategic metaphor can not only give us another insight into human nature by comparison with that which is not human; it can also give a hint of the mindset of the main character and a taste of the wit and wisdom of the author. Just think of the great metaphor in play in the title itself of George Orwell’s Animal Farm.

Meanwhile, alliteration may lend a rhythmic, hypnotic charm that invites readers to partake of their petals of purple prose—with a wry grin at the game in play. Of course, your job as the author is not to show off your writing skills. Your job is not to be clever; it’s to make the reader feel clever.

You can stay safe if you recognize the higher standing of literary elements over literary devices. The former—plot, setting, characters—are essential components forming a narrative’s foundation. Literary elements bring the structure in narration, and structure is the backbone of story, while literary devices are a set of techniques to enrich storytelling and impart depth, allowing comprehension on deeper levels.

These techniques go beyond the literal meaning of words to convey deeper significance, evoke human emotions, and create connections that resonate with readers.

Good writers use these tools sparingly while ensuring their true craftsmanship is in the pacing of the plot of the story to keep the reader reading!

Essential literary devices to know

Books using essential literary devices like alliteration and metaphor.
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There is a wide range of literary techniques for authors to use to enrich their narratives, but some devices used more frequently are allegory, alliteration, and allusion. Some operate at a high level relating to the organization of the text, and some work at the sentence level, pertaining to the use of phrases or the choice of a single word.

An allegory works at the higher level of structure. Think of it like a parable. But internally, within the text, the device facilitates the portrayal of abstract ideas using characters and plots as symbols to inject deeper meanings into the tale. Examples from fiction would include Animal Farm by George Orwell, Lord of the Flies by William Golding, and The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe by C.S. Lewis.

Allusion works at the sentence level to reach out to other worlds of reference, doffing a cap at other works of fiction, film, music, poems or art—anything that the author, the characters in the book, and the reader might share. It serves to bond and deepen their engagement. For example, in his novel Firestarter, Stephen King writes, ‘Rainbird was a troll, an orc, a balrog of a man.’ This is an allusion to the work of J.R.R. Tolkien. While trolls are figures of folklore, both orcs and balrogs are Tolkien’s original literary creations. King is subtly asking his readers to enter into a Tolkienesque secondary world state of mind!

Alliteration operates at the micro level of the word and focuses on repeating identical consonant sounds at the start of words within close proximity. This produces a pleasing rhythm and acts as an aide-mémoire, which can be used to bring the emotion to heightened moments. Consider the famous example from Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare:

From forth the fatal loins of these two foes
A pair of star-crossed lovers take their life
—William Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet

Don’t overdo techniques that operate at the level of the word, as it can be jarring to run these tricks across two or more phrases.

By grasping how these instruments operate, one can profoundly elevate both writing capability and reading appreciation. In subsequent sections we will probe into each indispensable device, examining their respective definitions along with the roles they play in crafting stories and accompanied by illustrative instances from literary works.

Allegory

As mentioned, Animal Farm by George Orwell stands out as possibly the most eminent example of this technique, using the pigs on a farm to represent the corruption inherent in totalitarian political regimes. Franz Kafka’s Metamorphosis depicts the main character’s transition into an insect as a representation of broader topics such as estrangement and self-identity. These are considered high-concept forms of storytelling from the speculative book genre.

Allegories can mirror significant worldwide trends or challenges, resonating on many different levels—capturing readers’ imaginations and stimulating reflection about our darker human traits and the way we live now. Consider Margaret Atwood’s The Handmaid’s Tale as a political allegory to consider not only the rights of women in society, but the abuse of power.

Alliteration

Alliteration, as a literary device, entails the deliberate use of repeated consonant sounds at the beginning of two or more words that are adjacent or closely connected. It’s frequently employed across various forms of writing, like poetry, children’s literature, and even in crafting tongue twisters to instill a sense of rhythm and musicality within the text. ‘I’m not the pheasant plucker; I’m the pheasant plucker’s son. I’m only plucking pheasants ’til the pheasant plucker comes’—this crafty British example demonstrates alliteration that effectively generates an engaging rhythmic pattern.

At moments of heightened sensibility, alliteration can make its mark. Take, for example, the famous last line from The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald: ‘So we beat on, boats against the current, borne back ceaselessly into the past,’ where the repetition of ‘b’ serves to decelerate reading pace while simultaneously accentuating the importance of these words with added weight through auditory emphasis. Strategic use of alliterative techniques can really help build atmosphere.

Allusion

Allusion is a literary device that references another published work, movie, or even music. The power of allusion depends on what the reader already knows, so you need to keep your reader in mind here. It helps them pick up on the deeper meanings behind the references, making the story more engaging. For example, in Haruki Murakami’s 1Q84, there is a nod to George Orwell’s 1984. This connection adds layers to the narrative and helps highlight similar themes in both books.

Toni Morrison’s Beloved is packed with allusions to the Bible, which really adds to the sorrow and irony woven throughout her story. When writers use allusions, they can tap into a wide range of emotions for their readers. These references connect with shared cultural or literary ideas, making their work even more powerful.

Spotting allusions while you read can really give you a peek into what the author is trying to say and the deeper themes in their work.

Enhancing your writing with literary devices

A photo of a writer using literary devices to enhance writing.
Get to work on your novel and enjoy learning advanced craft skills as you develop the story

Using literary techniques isn’t just about making your writing look pretty. When you weave these tools into your writing, you can give fresh insights into familiar ideas with a metaphor here or an oxymoron there, or use techniques like foreshadowing to bring the suspense!

Imagery engages the reader’s senses by making the actions, settings and characters vivid and immersive. Descriptive writing allows readers to see, smell, hear and touch the details, creating a sensory experience that brings a narrative to life.

Recognizing who will be reading your piece is important when selecting which literary methods to employ, since varying audiences may connect differently with each device used. Whether you are writing commercial or literary fiction, take care not to overload your text with too many literary devices, as this might detract from the narrative itself. If you can use literary devices to achieve deeper meaning more economically than by using other literary elements requiring longer passages or circuitous backstory, you’re onto a winner! For use in contemporary fiction, try to keep them within the remit of our use of language now. Think in terms of everyday speech in modern society and you will dodge the accusation of using purple prose!

Figurative language techniques and examples

Using figurative language is a key part of leveling up from a good writer to a great one. These techniques help link ideas with colorful imagery, making stories richer and giving readers a chance to really dig into the text.

Some of these tools can be very economical, allowing authors to move past exposition dumps to convey complex information and deal with the devil of backstory. A judiciously applied metaphor has the capacity to elevate simple commentary into a profound reflection. In a similar vein, the grandiose touch of exaggeration bestowed by the common literary device of hyperbole can bring significance to an otherwise pedestrian occurrence. It can range from the sublime to the ridiculous! Consider this in Wide Sargasso Sea by Jean Rhys: ‘A day was a year; a year was a day.’ (Sublime and economical, saving the writer a longer passage.) It can be turned to comical effect, too, and give the reader a smile.

It was a blonde. A blonde to make a bishop kick a hole in a stained-glass window.
—Raymond Chandler, Farewell, My Lovely

You will soon develop your own go-to writing tools to reflect your brand as an author, your understanding of your audience, using techniques such as metaphors, similes and hyperboles to boost your craft skills to create emphasis and deepen meaning on every page.

One of our favorite literary devices at The Novelry is the leitmotif, which we explain in our famous novel writing class.

Figurative language: leitmotif

The use of a leitmotif is a great way to facilitate the continuity of the story. Think: Hansel and Gretel leaving breadcrumbs for the reader to follow. But there’s more to it than that. There’s an invitation you can pop into your prose that includes an RSVP. It’s a little offering from writer to reader that’s just on the edge of being cute or contrived. 

There’s something comforting about the repetition of something quaint, banal, and almost insignificant. It is an abstract concept in butterfly form. Originally, the German leitmotiv (‘leading motive’) was used to describe repeated thematic melodies in larger musical pieces—particularly the works of Wagner. Thomas Mann, however, adopted the term to refer to individual elements of a story that authors used repeatedly to contribute to the overall telling of the tale.

In larger complex novels, a recurrent ‘light’ motif can help the reader notice when something of significance is being pointed out to them. The use of the railroad and trains is pretty heavy in Anna Karenina, which kicks off in a way that foreshadows her doom, and we don’t call this a ‘leitmotif.’ But Tereza carrying the novel Anna Karenina when she goes to start a life with Tomáš, and the naming of the dog ‘Karenin’ are leitmotifs which give some continuity to the telling of the story in The Unbearable Lightness of Being by Milan Kundera, who reaches for the leitmotif a few times in the famous novel (yellow, and the number six) as these are helpful to the integrity of the narrative, which is fragmented, being told from different perspectives including the author’s own voice.

Metaphor

A metaphor makes an explicit and direct comparison between two disparate entities, stating that one is the other.

This technique in literature is designed to enrich our understanding and offer deeper insight by drawing out similarities between distinct ideas or things.

She was the third beer. Not the first one, which the throat receives with almost tearful gratitude, nor the second, that confirms and extends the pleasure of the first. But the third, the one you drink because it’s there because it can’t hurt, and because what difference does it make?
—Toni Morrison, Song of Solomon

When metaphors are expanded across multiple lines or used pervasively throughout a text, this approach becomes what is known as an extended metaphor. An extended metaphor goes beyond one sentence but falls short of lasting for an entire novel, as in the fish—the marlin—representing the struggle with life in The Old Man and the Sea by Ernest Hemingway.

It never takes longer than a few minutes when they get together for everyone to revert to the state of nature, like a party marooned by a shipwreck. That’s what a family is. Also, there is the storm at sea, the ship, and the unknown shore. And the hats and the whiskey stills that you make out of bamboo and coconuts. And the fire that you light to keep away the beasts.
—Michael Chabon, The Yiddish Policemen’s Union

Metaphors serve as indispensable instruments within creative writing due to their capacity to encapsulate complex emotions and thoughts succinctly yet profoundly. They help writers bring in fresh perspectives and make abstract ideas feel real, which connects more with readers on a deeper level.

Simile

A simile draws a comparison between two disparate entities, using connecting words such as ‘like’ or ‘as.’

Similes find their place not only in literature but also in everyday language due to their simplicity and comprehensibility. Take these examples from the writing of Sally Rooney:

  • At times he has the sensation that he and Marianne are like figure skaters, improvising their discussions so adeptly and in such perfect synchronization that it surprises them both.
  • Outside her breath rises in a fine mist and the snow keeps falling, like a ceaseless repetition of the same infinitesimally small mistake.
  • Cherries hang on the dark-green trees like earrings.

Hyperbole

Hyperbole is a figure of speech that employs overstatement for emphasis or dramatic effect. It’s often used to magnify emotions and can bring some delicious humor!

Enjoy these free samples from the writing of the American humorist David Sedaris:

  • Every day spent with you is like having a cesarean section.
  • The things I’ve bought from strangers in the dark would curl your hair.
  • Either he was suffering a terrible case of gas, or he had a pint-size child practicing the trumpet in his back pocket.

It is the signature style of wit in the work of David Sedaris that he pairs hyperbole with understatement so effectively in just two or more phrases:

I didn’t know about the rest of the class, but when Bastille Day eventually rolled around, I planned to stay home and clean my oven.
―David Sedaris, Holidays on Ice
Getting through the night is becoming harder and harder. Last evening, I had the uneasy feeling that some men were trying to break into my room to shampoo me. But why? I kept imagining I saw shadowy forms, and at 3am the underwear I had draped over a chair resembled the Kaiser on roller skates. When I finally did fall asleep, I had that same hideous nightmare in which a woodchuck is trying to claim my prize at a raffle. Despair.
—Woody Allen, Without Feathers

The best use of hyperbole is all about striking a balance between really exaggerated statements and what’s actually believable.

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Creating impact with sound-based literary devices

Novels on a chair using sound devices used in literature, such as onomatopoeia and alliteration.
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Sound devices help shape prose by affecting its rhythm, mood and tone. Literary devices like rhythm and repetition, as well as techniques like onomatopoeia, assonance and consonance, enrich the auditory elements when we read. They can help bring to life a setting with a tone and atmosphere that draws your readers in.

Onomatopoeia

Onomatopoeia embodies the concept of words imitating sounds, such as ‘buzz’ or ‘click.’ For example, when a story depicts the sound of a bee with the word ‘buzzing,’ it stirs the senses.

Guns aren’t really an issue in Europe, so when I’m traveling abroad, my first question usually relates to barnyard animals. ‘What do your roosters say?’ is a good icebreaker, as every country has its own unique interpretation. In Germany, where dogs bark ‘vow vow’ and both the frog and the duck say ‘quack,’ the rooster greets the dawn with a hearty ‘kik-a-ricki.’ Greek roosters crow ‘kiri-a-kee,’ and in France they scream ‘coco-rico,’ which sounds like one of those horrible premixed cocktails with a pirate on the label. When told that an American rooster says ‘cock-a-doodle-doo,’ my hosts look at me with disbelief and pity.
—David Sedaris

This particular literary tool is often used in various forms of writing like poetry, children’s books and comic strips to forge an experience that is both dynamic and enriched with sensory details.

Assonance

Assonance is the repetitive use of vowel sounds within words to produce a melodious and fluid effect. Assonance can be used to create a light, playful or comforting mood—great for when the writer wants to set a relaxed or optimistic tone. On the flip side, if it’s used in a more negative or unsettling context, assonance can come across as sarcastic, or even a little bit creepy!

Lolita, light of my life, fire of my loins. My sin, my soul. Lo-lee-ta: the tip of the tongue taking a trip of three steps down the palate to tap, at three, on the teeth. Lo. Lee. Ta. She was Lo, plain Lo, in the morning, standing four feet ten in one sock. She was Lola in slacks. She was Dolly at school. She was Dolores on the dotted line. But in my arms she was always Lolita.
—Vladimir Nabokov, Lolita

Take this opening of Nabokov’s Lolita, for example. The narrator uses assonance in the phrase ‘light of my life,’ repeating the ‘i’ sound three times. This makes the phrase feel soft and tender, letting us feel how much the narrator adores Lolita without him having to spell it out. But when you think about the bigger picture, it gets twisted. There’s a big contrast between his sweet, poetic words and his darker intentions—since he’s much older and an inappropriate match for her—turning that once-charming assonance into something more unsettling.

Consonance

Consonance is when consonant sounds are repeated within a line or phrase. This technique adds rhythm and a musical feel to the text, kind of like alliteration, but it doesn’t just stick to the beginnings of words. A great example is ‘pitter-patter,’ where the ‘t’ and ‘r’ sounds show up multiple times, creating a nice rhythmic flow.

Consonance plays hard in Nabokov’s Lolita, adding a lot of depth and texture to the writing. This technique can really boost the rhythm of a phrase or add an extra layer of meaning. For example, early on in the novel, the narrator Humbert Humbert describes Lolita as ‘petal-pretty,’ and the repeated ‘p’ sound gives it a nice, almost musical feel.

This playful use of consonance makes his description of Lolita sound affectionate, but as we read on, the patter seems more disturbing. The previously charming repetition contrasts with Humbert’s obsessive, dark desire.

Consonance can create a sense of unity or even build suspense depending on how it’s used and the specific sounds that are repeated.

Building suspense and emotion

Things are not what they seem in suspenseful novels. In fact, the opposite is almost always true.

In prose, the writer qualifies phrases and expressions, giving with one hand and taking away with the other, to show that what is being signaled is not what lies beneath. This creates unease—and it’s terrifically simple to do. So, where do we start? There are some common literary techniques used in writing crime and suspense fiction that really amp up the excitement and keep readers hooked from start to finish. Consider using foreshadowing, dramatic irony and mood to bring the most nerve-tingling suspense!

Foreshadowing

Foreshadowing is a narrative technique that provides naughtily suggestive clues about what will happen later in the storyline, adding excitement or foreboding. Stephen King is a master of foreshadowing, using it to build suspense and hint at future events in his stories. He often plants subtle clues early on, making the eventual revelations feel both surprising and inevitable. Why is Stephen King such a great writer? Because he never forgets the golden rule: it’s not about making the reader think that you, the author, are clever. It’s about letting them be clever.

In The Shining, King often hints at the Overlook Hotel’s creepy hold on Jack Torrance. Early on, he mentions Jack’s temper and his past issues with drinking, clueing us in to his potential for violence and foreshadowing Jack’s eventual spiral into madness. King uses small, seemingly innocuous details, like Danny’s repeated visions of the word ‘REDRUM,’ to build the anticipation. By the time all these elements come together, it’s like the last pieces of a puzzle falling into place, making the horror hit harder.

Situational irony can work as another way of foreshadowing, where the ending turns out to be totally different from what you’d expect, adding extra layers of meaning and surprise. In Holidays on Ice, David Sedaris uses situational irony really well, setting up situations that lead to outcomes you didn’t see coming. By creating moments that initially seem to point in one direction but end up somewhere entirely different, Sedaris reveals the absurdities of human behavior and societal norms.

In ‘Santaland Diaries,’ for instance, Sedaris takes on a job as a Christmas elf at Macy’s, expecting it to be a lighthearted, whimsical experience. But it turns into a nightmare filled with rude customers and crying kids, along with the constant pressure to be cheerful. This ironic twist isn’t just funny—it points to a deeper message about the gap between holiday expectations and the reality of our lives. The whole set-up of a fun and festive job gets flipped by Sedaris’s sharp observations, making the final outcome hit harder. Situational irony can add deeper meaning to what seems like a lighthearted situation. Heads up! If it’s supposed to be jolly, it ain’t.

Dramatic irony

Dramatic irony is when the audience knows something that the characters don’t, which creates tension and stirs up emotions.

In Normal People, Sally Rooney nails this technique to show the ups and downs of Marianne and Connell’s relationship. Throughout the book, readers often know their true feelings and intentions before the characters themselves do, adding tension that really highlights their struggle to connect.

There are plenty of moments where Marianne thinks Connell doesn’t care about her, but we know from his inner thoughts that he’s actually deeply in love with her; he just doesn’t have the guts to say it. At the same time, Connell often misreads Marianne’s actions, thinking she’s indifferent or not interested when she’s really dealing with her own insecurities and feelings for him. This dramatic irony creates a sense of frustration and makes things feel even more emotional as we see two people who clearly care about each other struggling to communicate. It makes their misunderstandings and separations hit harder. Rooney uses this technique to show how love can get messy because of our fears, assumptions, and the struggle to be open, which makes their journey feel incredibly real and relatable.

Using dramatic irony can really pull at a reader’s emotions, pulling them deeper into the story and making them root for a happy ending with every twist and turn!

Rooney also uses verbal irony in her dialogue, where characters say one thing but mean another, which adds even more depth to the text. This mix of dramatic and verbal irony gives us a detailed look at misunderstandings and the complexities of communication in relationships, making the emotional impact even stronger and getting readers to connect with the characters’ struggles as they deal with their complicated feelings for each other. Through all of this, Rooney creates a story that really hits home when it comes to the ups and downs of love.

Mood

Mood in fiction is all about the emotional response a passage triggers in readers, conveyed in the language and careful use of tone.

In The Hunting Party, Lucy Foley manages to build a sense of tension and unease that runs throughout the story, keeping readers hooked and on edge the whole time.

Foley uses really vivid descriptions to set the scene, especially when she portrays the remote Scottish Highlands, where the characters are gathering for their New Year’s Eve getaway. The rugged landscape is described in detail to create an atmosphere that feels beautiful but doom-laden. Phrases like ‘the mountains loom like dark sentinels’ and ‘the snowflakes swirl like confetti’ highlight the contrast between the pretty setting and the tension among the group.

The tone swings between lighthearted banter and heavier, more introspective moments. The friendly teasing has a sarcastic edge, and as the night goes on, the vibe shifts to one of dread and suspicion. The group starts to turn on each other, and the laughter gives way to something more ominous.

Foley uses techniques like foreshadowing to build the mood with mentions of the storm brewing outside.

Using contradictory elements for effect

In literature, throwing in some contradictory elements can really amp up the drama and showcase the story’s complexities. Literary devices like oxymoron, paradox and juxtaposition do just that. These techniques push readers to think critically about the contradictions they encounter.

Oxymorons make strong statements by putting together contradictory terms right next to each other, while paradoxes go a step beyond a simple clashing of words to reveal deeper insights through ideas that seem inconsistent at first glance; they are philosophical. Juxtaposition, on the other hand, places different elements close to each other to highlight their differences and ramp up the dramatic tension or add some stylistic flair.

Let’s dive into each of these three concepts—oxymoron, paradox and juxtaposition—next!

Oxymoron

An oxymoron is a literary device that pairs two contradictory words to describe a single idea, blending what are usually seen as opposing concepts. They encourage readers to pause and think about the contradiction, creating a memorable impact. When you get readers thinking, you’ve definitely got them hooked!

Some forms of this are incredibly compact and efficient and the effect can be achieved in a word that combines two separate meanings like ‘bittersweet,’ or two words like ‘deafening silence,’ which juxtapose two seemingly incompatible ideas to forge new significance.

Charles Dickens uses the oxymoron ‘deafening silence’ in Great Expectations to describe Pip’s feelings when he encounters Magwitch. This phrase captures the intense emotional turmoil Pip experiences; the silence is loud with unspoken fears and anxieties about his past and the unexpected presence of the convict who has changed his life.

Whereas oxymorons specifically concentrate on conjoining contradictory words for effect, juxtaposition highlights contrasts between different elements within a narrative. (Read on!)

Paradox

A paradox is basically a statement that seems contradictory at first but actually has a deeper meaning when you think about it. This more philosophical literary device makes readers ponder the confusing nature of statements that sound irrational but are really true, prompting some critical thinking.

For example, in Brave New World by Aldous Huxley, there’s the slogan ‘Freedom is slavery.’ This totally contradictory statement suggests that real freedom comes from submission and control.

In 1984 by George Orwell, you get the paradox ‘War is peace.’ This reflects how the oppressive regime twists the truth, claiming that constant warfare actually brings stability and peace to society.

Then there’s Slaughterhouse-Five by Kurt Vonnegut, where he writes: ‘I was a prisoner of war, and I didn’t know what was going to happen next. I was free.’ This captures the contradiction of being imprisoned but still feeling a sense of freedom by accepting whatever fate has in store.

Juxtaposition

Juxtaposition is all about putting different elements next to each other to highlight their unique qualities. As a literary device, it helps readers understand by contrasting something with its opposite.

A classic example comes from Charles Dickens in the opening line of A Tale of Two Cities: ‘It was the best of times, it was the worst of times.’ This line captures the contradictions of the era, contrasting the chaotic nature of the French Revolution with the good fortune of some of those in the story.

This juxtaposition runs throughout the story as Dickens contrasts the lives of characters in Paris and London and the wealth and luxury enjoyed by Charles Darnay versus the poverty and violence faced by the ordinary people in Paris.

Symbolism and deeper meanings

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The bestselling book writing coaches of The Novelry use symbolism in their stories!

The literary device known as symbolism requires the use of concrete symbols to express abstract ideas. For instance, the eyes of Doctor T.J. Eckleburg in The Great Gatsby serve as a symbol of God’s omnipresent watchfulness over a society in moral decline. We will take a quick look at two related terms here too: motif and archetype.

Symbolism

Symbolism is a literary device that adds deeper meaning to things beyond what you see on the surface. Objects and images take on a life of their own, representing bigger ideas like the passage of time, mortality, or hidden dangers. This enriches the story, giving it more layers and depth.

Also from The Great Gatsby, the green light at the end of Daisy’s dock symbolizes Gatsby’s unreachable dreams and desires, particularly his longing for Daisy and the American Dream. (I hope you are now getting the drift that great writers layer up their use of literary devices!)

In The Handmaid’s Tale by Margaret Atwood, the pomegranate symbolizes fertility, desire, and the suppressed sexuality of women in the dystopian society of Gilead. In The Hunger Games by Suzanne Collins, the mockingjay pin symbolizes rebellion and hope. Given to Katniss as a token of protection, it becomes a symbol of defiance.

A storm in a book might symbolize inner conflict or significant life changes, adding depth to both the plot and character development.

A thing is not just a thing when you use a symbol. These non-human things are a portal into the inner workings of characters’ thoughts, hopes and fears, and stand as shorthand for their moral quest. Book titles often pack a punch by drawing on the more powerful symbols in the writing.

Symbolism is a powerful tool for exploring themes and ideas without overwhelming readers.

Motif

A motif is a recurring element that really helps shape the theme of a story. It can show up as a repeated symbol, concept, or even a structural feature that highlights the main message and strengthens the story’s thematic backbone. For instance, in Haruki Murakami’s works, the motif of solitude pops up often, particularly through talking animals, which emphasizes themes of isolation and human connection.

Motifs can be physical things like objects or events, or they can be more abstract ideas like thoughts or feelings. Take Anna Karenina, for example—trains show up repeatedly during key moments in Anna’s life. These trains aren’t just a way to get around; they also symbolize change and destruction, deepening the main motifs in Tolstoy’s epic story.

In Slaughterhouse-Five, Kurt Vonnegut uses motifs to help readers understand the deeper themes and messages in the story. When you pick up on these recurring elements, it really helps you appreciate what’s happening beneath the surface and how the whole narrative comes together.

The larger form of the motif (as opposed to the leitmotif we explained earlier) is conceptual rather than repeated words, and in Slaughterhouse-Five, the motif in play is the idea of time as a non-linear experience. Billy Pilgrim’s jumps through different moments in his life emphasize the chaos of war and the randomness of existence. This pattern invites readers to reflect on how we perceive time and the way our experiences shape us.

By recognizing these motifs, you can get a better sense of the messages Vonnegut is conveying about war, life, and the human experience.

Archetype

Archetypes are symbols we see everywhere in stories, tapping into familiar themes that resonate with people around the world. These archetypes show up as characters, settings, motifs or actions and really hit home because they reflect key aspects of the human experience and our shared traits. Think about the pure-hearted kid, like Harry Potter, or the wise old mentor, like Dumbledore. They provide a familiar framework that audiences can latch onto, making stories feel more relatable and powerful.

Authors who really know how to use archetypes create stories that hit home for readers. Take The Hunger Games, for example; Katniss Everdeen is the classic hero, tackling huge challenges and getting stronger as she goes. Then there’s Hazel Grace Lancaster from The Fault in Our Stars, who embodies the pure-hearted kid, sharing important life lessons even while dealing with her illness.

Poetic literary devices

Sound devices

Sound devices are literary tools that add music to writing, making the reading experience more enjoyable with an auditory appeal. They can bring rhythm, mood and depth for memorability and reading pleasure.

Alliteration is when the same initial consonant sounds repeat in a group of words. In Maya Angelou’s ‘Still I Rise,’ there’s a line that goes, ‘You may trod me in the very dirt,’ which uses alliteration. You can hear the ‘t’ sound repeated in ‘trod,’ ‘the’ and ‘dirt,’ giving it a nice rhythm and highlighting the struggle and strength in the poem. Angelou often used alliteration to add to the musical feel of her writing and to really drive home her powerful themes.

Assonance involves the repetition of vowel sounds within words close to each other. This can create a sense of harmony and musicality. In Edgar Allan Poe’s ‘The Raven,’ the line ‘And the silken, sad, uncertain rustling of each purple curtain’ uses assonance with the ‘i’ and ‘u’ sounds to enhance the poem’s eerie atmosphere.

Consonance is the repetition of consonant sounds within or at the end of words. This device can add a lyrical quality to poetry. For instance, in the phrase ‘pitter-patter’ that we considered earlier, the repetition of the ‘t’ and ‘r’ sounds creates a rhythmic effect.

Onomatopoeia refers to words that imitate natural sounds, such as ‘buzz,’ ‘whisper’ or ‘clang.’ This device can make descriptions more vivid and immersive.

At first, just one, a glossy purple / blob; among the green / of the leaves / and the red / of the raspberries, / I picked / until the buckets were full.
—Seamus Heaney, ‘Blackberry-Picking’

Structural devices

Structural devices are the backbone of a narrative, organizing and shaping the story in a way that adds depth and complexity. Here are some key examples:

  • Allegory: An allegory is a story that uses characters and events to represent abstract concepts or ideas. Think of George Orwell’s Animal Farm, where the farm animals symbolize different political ideologies and historical events. Allegories often carry moral, social or political messages, making them powerful tools for storytelling.
  • Symbolism: Symbolism involves using objects or characters to represent broader concepts or ideas. For example, in F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby, the green light at the end of Daisy’s dock symbolizes Gatsby’s unattainable dreams and the American Dream itself. Symbols add layers of meaning, enriching the narrative.
  • Foreshadowing: This device involves planting hints or clues about events that will occur later in the story. It builds suspense and keeps readers engaged. In The Shining by Stephen King, early mentions of Jack Torrance’s temper and past issues foreshadow his eventual descent into madness.
  • Flashback: Flashbacks are scenes or events from the past that provide background information or context. They help readers understand a character’s motivations and the story’s history. In To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee, flashbacks to Scout’s childhood provide insight into the social dynamics of Maycomb and the roots of the story’s central conflict.

By using these structural devices, writers can create narratives that are not only engaging but also rich in meaning and complexity.

Literary devices in prose

Here are some examples of the literary devices more commonly used in prose:

  • Imagery: Imagery involves using descriptive language to create vivid pictures in the reader’s mind. It appeals to the reader’s senses, making the scenes more immersive. For instance, in The Road by Cormac McCarthy, the bleak, desolate landscapes are brought to life through stark, haunting imagery.
  • Irony: Irony is the use of words or situations to convey a meaning that is opposite to their literal meaning. It can add humor, create tension, or highlight the absurdity of a situation. In Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen, Mr. Bennet’s sarcastic remarks often serve as ironic commentary on the events unfolding around him.
  • Juxtaposition: Juxtaposition involves placing contrasting ideas or images side by side to create a sense of tension or highlight differences. In A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens, the opening line—It was the best of times, it was the worst of times—juxtaposes opposing ideas to capture the contradictions of the era.
  • Personification: Personification attributes human characteristics to non-human entities, such as objects or animals. This device can make descriptions more relatable and vivid. In 1984 by George Orwell, the Party’s omnipresent surveillance is personified through the image of Big Brother.

By incorporating these literary devices, prose writers can create richer, more engaging narratives that resonate deeply with readers.

Narrative devices

Narrative devices are essential tools for shaping the flow and structure of a story. They help create tension, provide context, and guide the reader through the narrative. Here are some key narrative devices:

  • Foreshadowing: Foreshadowing involves dropping subtle hints or clues about events that will occur later in the story. This device builds anticipation and keeps readers engaged. As mentioned in The Shining by Stephen King, early references to Jack Torrance’s temper foreshadow his descent into madness.
  • Flashback: Flashbacks are scenes or events from the past that provide background information or context, as we looked at in the example of To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee.
  • Unreliable Narrator: An unreliable narrator is a character who provides misleading or false information to the reader. This device creates suspense and challenges readers to question the truth of the narrative. In Gone Girl by Gillian Flynn, both Nick and Amy serve as unreliable narrators, keeping readers guessing about the true nature of their relationship.
  • Stream-of-Consciousness: This narrative technique seeks to mimic the interior monologue of a human being with an intimate glimpse into a character’s inner world. For example, Mrs. Dalloway by Virginia Woolf.

By mastering these narrative devices, writers can craft stories that are not only compelling but also rich in complexity and depth.

Rhetorical devices

Persuasive devices

Persuasive devices are techniques writers use to get readers to back a particular idea or argument. One common method is repetition, where writers repeat certain words or phrases to drive their point home.

Repetition involves repeating words or phrases to emphasize a point and make it more memorable. In Winston Churchill’s famous speech ‘We Shall Fight on the Beaches,’ the repeated phrase ‘we shall fight’ reinforces the determination and resilience of the British people during World War II.

Rhetorical questions are questions posed for effect rather than to elicit an answer. In The Fault in Our Stars by John Green, Hazel Grace Lancaster throws out rhetorical questions to vent her frustrations about cancer and life. One moment that stands out is when she asks: ‘Why are we not allowed to be unhappy?’

Emotional appeals (or pathos) aim to evoke an emotional response from the audience, such as sympathy, anger or joy. In Charles Dickens’s A Christmas Carol, the plight of Tiny Tim is used to evoke sympathy and encourage readers to reflect on the importance of compassion and generosity.

Learn to identify literary devices

Aim to broadly familiarize yourself with the purpose of literary devices. Seek them out, highlight them, admire them, and collect your own set of go-to literary devices to bring deeper meaning to your everyday scenes.

If you’re aiming to become an author, get into the habit of note-taking when reading. It’s the way of the dedicated writer and the basis of a text-based apprenticeship. You might like to read our blog, in which our founder, Louise Dean, practices a close reading of F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby to study the patterns of language used in this very famous novel. If you would like to learn how to write a book in fine style and the chance to learn and practice literary devices as you develop your novel, join us for one of our creative writing courses at The Novelry.

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The big, bad list of literary devices

A

  • Allegory: a story where characters, events or settings stand for bigger ideas, often sending out moral, social, or political messages.
  • Alliteration: the same starting consonant sounds repeated in nearby words (e.g., ‘She sells seashells by the seashore’).
  • Allusion: a subtle nod to a person, place, event or literary work.
  • Anachronism: a mix-up in time where something is placed in the wrong era.
  • Anadiplosis: the last word of one sentence or clause is repeated at the start of the next (e.g., ‘Fear leads to anger. Anger leads to hate’).
  • Anagnorisis: a key moment of realization for a character, especially in tragedies.
  • Anaphora: repeating a word or phrase at the beginning of several clauses (e.g., ‘We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds’).
  • Anastrophe: changing the usual word order for emphasis (e.g., ‘Powerful you have become; the dark side I sense in you’).
  • Anecdote: a brief and entertaining story about a real event or person.
  • Antagonist: the character or force that goes against the main character (protagonist).
  • Antanaclasis: repeating a word in two different ways (e.g., ‘If you aren’t fired with enthusiasm, you will be fired with enthusiasm’).
  • Anthropomorphism: giving human traits to non-human things, like animals or objects (e.g., Winnie the Pooh).
  • Anticlimax: a sudden drop from something significant to something trivial, often funny or disappointing.
  • Antimetabole: repeating words in successive phrases but flipping their order (e.g., ‘Eat to live, not live to eat’).
  • Antithesis: placing contrasting ideas next to each other in similar structures (e.g., ‘It was the best of times, it was the worst of times’).
  • Aphorism: a short statement that conveys a general truth or principle (e.g., ‘Actions speak louder than words’).
  • Apologue: a moral story, often featuring animals or inanimate objects as characters.
  • Apostrophe: speaking directly to someone or something that isn’t present (e.g., ‘O Death, where is thy sting?’).
  • Archaism: intentionally using outdated language.
  • Assonance: repeating vowel sounds within nearby words (e.g., ‘The rain in Spain falls mainly in the plain’).
  • Asyndeton: leaving out conjunctions between parts of a sentence (e.g., ‘I came, I saw, I conquered’).
  • Autobiography: a self-written account of one’s life.

B

  • Bathos: a sudden change from something serious to something silly, often leading to humor.
  • Bildungsroman: a coming-of-age novel focusing on a character’s growth from youth to adulthood.
  • Brachylogy: a short and concise way of expressing something, often with omitted words.
  • Burlesque: a piece of writing designed to mock a subject, often through exaggerated imitation.

C

  • Cacophony: a mix of harsh sounds that often conveys chaos.
  • Caesura: a break or pause in a line of poetry, usually marked by punctuation.
  • Canon: a recognized collection of literary works considered authoritative or classic.
  • Cataloging: listing items in poetry or prose to create a rhetorical effect.
  • Catastrophe: the final action that resolves the plot, especially in a tragedy.
  • Characterization: the way a writer reveals what a character is like.
  • Chiasmus: a rhetorical device where two or more clauses are related through a reversal of structure (e.g., ‘Never let a Fool Kiss You or a Kiss Fool You’).
  • Cliché: a phrase or idea that’s been overused and lost its originality.
  • Cliffhanger: a narrative device where a story or episode ends on a suspenseful note.
  • Climax: the point in a story where the main conflict is at its peak.
  • Colloquialism: everyday language and expressions that are informal.
  • Comedy: a type of literature that’s funny and often ends happily.
  • Conceit: an elaborate metaphor that shapes a poetic piece.
  • Conflict: the tension between opposing forces that drives the plot.
  • Connotation: the emotional or cultural implications of a word beyond its basic meaning.
  • Consonance: the repetition of consonant sounds in or at the end of words (e.g., ‘pitter-patter’).
  • Couplet: two rhyming lines in poetry with the same meter.

D

  • Denotation: the direct dictionary definition of a word.
  • Deus ex machina: an unexpected event that saves a seemingly hopeless situation, often introduced suddenly.
  • Diacope: repeating a word or phrase with a few words in between (e.g., ‘Free at last, free at last’).
  • Dialect: a specific way of speaking tied to a region or group.
  • Diction: the selection and use of words in writing or speaking.
  • Doppelgänger: a character’s duplicate or alter ego, often reflecting a different aspect of themselves.
  • Dynamic character: a character who undergoes significant change during a story.
  • Dystopia: an imagined society that’s frightening or undesirable, often under oppressive rule.

E

  • Epanalepsis: repeating the same word or phrase at both the beginning and end of a sentence.
  • Epigram: a clever, often paradoxical statement or poem.
  • Epigraph: a quote or excerpt placed at the start of a text to set the mood or theme.
  • Epiphany: a sudden realization or insight experienced by a character.
  • Epistolary: a literary work told through letters, diary entries, or other documents.
  • Epithet: a descriptive term that accompanies or replaces a name (e.g., ‘Alexander the Great’).
  • Ethos: a persuasive appeal to ethics and credibility.
  • Euphemism: a softer word used in place of one that’s too harsh (e.g., ‘passed away’ instead of ‘died’).
  • Euphony: a pleasant and harmonious sound used in writing.
  • Exposition: the background information given in a literary piece.

F

  • Fable: a brief story, often featuring animals, that conveys a moral lesson.
  • Falling action: the events that follow the climax and lead to the resolution.
  • Fantasy: a literary genre that includes magical and supernatural elements.
  • Farce: a comedy that relies on absurd situations.
  • Flashback: a scene set earlier than the main narrative.
  • Flash-forward: a scene that jumps ahead in time during the narrative.
  • Flat character: a one-dimensional character lacking significant development.
  • Foil: a character who contrasts with another to highlight specific traits.
  • Foreshadowing: hints or clues about events that will occur later.
  • Frame Story: a story within another story, providing context for the main plot.
  • Free indirect discourse: a narration style that reveals a character’s thoughts without direct quotes.
  • Free verse: poetry that doesn’t follow a specific rhyme or meter.

G

  • Genre: a category of literature, like fiction or poetry, sharing common traits.
  • Gothic: a genre featuring dark, mysterious and often supernatural themes.
  • Gradatio: a series of clauses or sentences that build in significance.

H

  • Hamartia: a tragic flaw or misjudgment that leads to a character’s downfall.
  • Hendiadys: using two words connected by ‘and’ to express a single idea (e.g., ‘nice and warm’ instead of ‘nicely warm’).
  • Homograph: words that share the same spelling but have different meanings and pronunciations (e.g., ‘lead’ as in to guide and ‘lead’ as a metal).
  • Hubris: overconfidence or pride that often results in a character’s downfall.
  • Hyperbaton: deliberate rearrangement of words for emphasis or effect.
  • Hyperbole: intentional exaggeration for emphasis (e.g., ‘I’m so hungry I could eat a horse’).

I

  • Imagery: descriptive language that engages the senses (sight, sound, taste, touch, smell).
  • In medias res: a storytelling technique that starts in the middle of the action.
  • Innuendo: a subtle or indirect reference, often with a suggestive undertone.
  • Internal rhyme: rhyme that occurs within a single line of poetry.
  • Intertextuality: the connections between different texts and how they refer to or echo one another.
  • Irony: a contrast between what’s expected and what actually happens, often highlighting the opposite of what’s intended.

J

  • Juxtaposition: putting two opposing elements next to each other to showcase their differences.

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K

  • Kenning: a creative compound term used in ancient English and Norse poetry (like ‘whale-road’ for the ocean).

L

  • Lament: a poem or song that expresses sorrow.
  • Litotes: a way of saying something is positive by using a double negative (e.g., ‘He’s not bad-looking’ implies he’s attractive).
  • Local color: a rich depiction of a region’s setting, customs and dialect.

M

  • MacGuffin: an item, event or character that propels the story but isn’t really significant.
  • Magic realism: a genre where magical elements are woven into a realistic setting.
  • Malapropism: using the wrong word that sounds similar to the right one.
  • Meiosis: a form of understatement that downplays or trivializes (like calling a serious injury ‘a scratch’).
  • Memoir: a personal account focusing on a specific time or event in the author’s life.
  • Metafiction: fiction that reflects on its own storytelling methods, blurring lines between fiction and reality.
  • Metaphor: a direct comparison between two different things without using ‘like’ or ‘as’ (e.g., ‘Time is a thief’).
  • Metonymy: referring to something by a closely associated term (e.g., ‘The White House’ for the President).
  • Mood: the emotional vibe or atmosphere created by the piece.
  • Motif: a recurring theme or idea in a literary work.

N

  • Negative capability: a concept by John Keats about embracing uncertainty and ambiguity.
  • Nemesis: a character’s main enemy or source of downfall.
  • Non-linear narrative: a storytelling method that skips around in time instead of following a straight line.

O

  • Onomatopoeia: a word that mimics a sound (like ‘buzz’ or ‘hiss’).
  • Oxymoron: a phrase that combines contradictory terms (e.g., ‘jumbo shrimp’).

P

  • Palinode: a poem where the author retracts a previous opinion expressed in an earlier work.
  • Parable: a simple story meant to convey a moral lesson.
  • Paradox: a seemingly contradictory statement that reveals a deeper truth (e.g., ‘Less is more’).
  • Parallelism: using similar grammatical structures in writing.
  • Parody: a humorous take on another work or style.
  • Pastiche: a piece that imitates the style or character of another work or artist.
  • Pathetic fallacy: attributing human feelings to nature or inanimate objects.
  • Pathos: an emotional appeal in rhetoric.
  • Peripeteia: a sudden turn of events in a narrative.
  • Personification: giving human traits to non-human things.
  • Picaresque: a genre featuring a roguish but charming protagonist, usually from a lower social class.
  • Platitude: a statement that’s been repeated so much it’s lost its meaning.
  • Poetic justice: the concept that good is rewarded while evil is punished in the end.
  • Point of view: the perspective from which a story is told (first, second or third person).

Q

  • Quatrain: a four-line stanza, often with a specific rhyme scheme.

R

  • Realism: a literary movement focused on depicting life as it truly is, highlighting everyday experiences.
  • Red herring: a misleading clue or distraction.
  • Refrain: a line or group of lines that repeats in a poem or song.
  • Rhetorical question: a question posed for effect rather than requiring an answer.
  • Rhyme scheme: the pattern of end rhymes in a poem.
  • Roman à clef: a novel that features real people or events under fictional names.

S

  • Satire: a genre that employs humor, irony or ridicule to critique.
  • Simile: a comparison using ‘like’ or ‘as’ (e.g., ‘as brave as a lion’).
  • Soliloquy: a speech delivered by a character alone on stage, revealing their thoughts.
  • Sonnet: a 14-line poem with a specific rhyme scheme and meter.
  • Spoonerism: a humorous mistake where the initial sounds of words are swapped (e.g., ‘You have hissed all my mystery lectures’).
  • Stream of consciousness: a narrative style reflecting a character’s thoughts and feelings as they occur.
  • Surrealism: a twentieth-century movement aiming to tap into the unconscious mind’s creativity.
  • Symbolism: using symbols to represent ideas or concepts.
  • Synecdoche: a figure of speech where a part stands for the whole (e.g., ‘All hands on deck’).

T

  • Theme: the main idea or message in a literary work.
  • Tone: the author’s attitude toward the subject or audience.
  • Tragedy: a serious play where the main character experiences great suffering.
  • Tragic flaw: a character’s weakness that leads to their downfall.

U

  • Ubi sunt: a literary theme expressing mourning for lost things.
  • Understatement: downplaying the significance of something on purpose.
  • Utopia: an imagined perfect society, often as a contrast to reality.

V

  • Verisimilitude: the quality of appearing true or real.
  • Vignette: a brief, descriptive piece of writing.
  • Villanelle: a 19-line poem with a specific repeating structure.

W

  • Wit: a clever and humorous expression of thought.

Z

  • Zeugma: a figure of speech where one word connects to two others in different senses (e.g., ‘He stole my heart and my wallet’).

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